core2/io/

traits.rs

use super::error::{Error, ErrorKind, Result};
use core::{cmp, fmt, slice};

#[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
pub use alloc::vec::Vec;

#[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
struct Guard<'a> {
    buf: &'a mut Vec<u8>,
    len: usize,
}

#[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
impl Drop for Guard<'_> {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        unsafe {
            self.buf.set_len(self.len);
        }
    }
}

// This uses an adaptive system to extend the vector when it fills. We want to
// avoid paying to allocate and zero a huge chunk of memory if the reader only
// has 4 bytes while still making large reads if the reader does have a ton
// of data to return. Simply tacking on an extra DEFAULT_BUF_SIZE space every
// time is 4,500 times (!) slower than a default reservation size of 32 if the
// reader has a very small amount of data to return.
//
// Because we're extending the buffer with uninitialized data for trusted
// readers, we need to make sure to truncate that if any of this panics.
#[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
fn read_to_end<R: Read + ?Sized>(r: &mut R, buf: &mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<usize> {
    read_to_end_with_reservation(r, buf, |_| 32)
}

#[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
fn read_to_end_with_reservation<R, F>(
    r: &mut R,
    buf: &mut Vec<u8>,
    mut reservation_size: F,
) -> Result<usize>
where
    R: Read + ?Sized,
    F: FnMut(&R) -> usize,
{
    let start_len = buf.len();
    let mut g = Guard {
        len: buf.len(),
        buf,
    };
    loop {
        if g.len == g.buf.len() {
            unsafe {
                // FIXME(danielhenrymantilla): #42788
                //
                //   - This creates a (mut) reference to a slice of
                //     _uninitialized_ integers, which is **undefined behavior**
                //
                //   - Only the standard library gets to soundly "ignore" this,
                //     based on its privileged knowledge of unstable rustc
                //     internals;
                g.buf.reserve(reservation_size(r));
                let capacity = g.buf.capacity();
                g.buf.set_len(capacity);
                r.initializer().initialize(&mut g.buf[g.len..]);
            }
        }

        let buf = &mut g.buf[g.len..];
        match r.read(buf) {
            Ok(0) => return Ok(g.len - start_len),
            Ok(n) => {
                // We can't allow bogus values from read. If it is too large, the returned vec could have its length
                // set past its capacity, or if it overflows the vec could be shortened which could create an invalid
                // string if this is called via read_to_string.
                assert!(n <= buf.len());
                g.len += n;
            }
            Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => {}
            Err(e) => return Err(e),
        }
    }
}

/// The `Read` trait allows for reading bytes from a source.
///
/// Implementors of the `Read` trait are called 'readers'.
///
/// Readers are defined by one required method, [`read()`]. Each call to [`read()`]
/// will attempt to pull bytes from this source into a provided buffer. A
/// number of other methods are implemented in terms of [`read()`], giving
/// implementors a number of ways to read bytes while only needing to implement
/// a single method.
///
/// Readers are intended to be composable with one another. Many implementors
/// throughout [`std::io`] take and provide types which implement the `Read`
/// trait.
///
/// Please note that each call to [`read()`] may involve a system call, and
/// therefore, using something that implements [`BufRead`], such as
/// [`BufReader`], will be more efficient.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// [`File`]s implement `Read`:
///
/// ```no_run
/// use std::io;
/// use std::io::prelude::*;
/// use std::fs::File;
///
/// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
///     let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
///     let mut buffer = [0; 10];
///
///     // read up to 10 bytes
///     f.read(&mut buffer)?;
///
///     let mut buffer = Vec::new();
///     // read the whole file
///     f.read_to_end(&mut buffer)?;
///
///     // read into a String, so that you don't need to do the conversion.
///     let mut buffer = String::new();
///     f.read_to_string(&mut buffer)?;
///
///     // and more! See the other methods for more details.
///     Ok(())
/// }
/// ```
///
/// Read from [`&str`] because [`&[u8]`][slice] implements `Read`:
///
/// ```no_run
/// # use std::io;
/// use std::io::prelude::*;
///
/// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
///     let mut b = "This string will be read".as_bytes();
///     let mut buffer = [0; 10];
///
///     // read up to 10 bytes
///     b.read(&mut buffer)?;
///
///     // etc... it works exactly as a File does!
///     Ok(())
/// }
/// ```
///
/// [`read()`]: Read::read
/// [`&str`]: prim@str
/// [`std::io`]: self
/// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
/// [slice]: ../../std/primitive.slice.html
pub trait Read {
    /// Pull some bytes from this source into the specified buffer, returning
    /// how many bytes were read.
    ///
    /// This function does not provide any guarantees about whether it blocks
    /// waiting for data, but if an object needs to block for a read and cannot,
    /// it will typically signal this via an [`Err`] return value.
    ///
    /// If the return value of this method is [`Ok(n)`], then it must be
    /// guaranteed that `0 <= n <= buf.len()`. A nonzero `n` value indicates
    /// that the buffer `buf` has been filled in with `n` bytes of data from this
    /// source. If `n` is `0`, then it can indicate one of two scenarios:
    ///
    /// 1. This reader has reached its "end of file" and will likely no longer
    ///    be able to produce bytes. Note that this does not mean that the
    ///    reader will *always* no longer be able to produce bytes.
    /// 2. The buffer specified was 0 bytes in length.
    ///
    /// It is not an error if the returned value `n` is smaller than the buffer size,
    /// even when the reader is not at the end of the stream yet.
    /// This may happen for example because fewer bytes are actually available right now
    /// (e. g. being close to end-of-file) or because read() was interrupted by a signal.
    ///
    /// No guarantees are provided about the contents of `buf` when this
    /// function is called, implementations cannot rely on any property of the
    /// contents of `buf` being true. It is recommended that *implementations*
    /// only write data to `buf` instead of reading its contents.
    ///
    /// Correspondingly, however, *callers* of this method may not assume any guarantees
    /// about how the implementation uses `buf`. The trait is safe to implement,
    /// so it is possible that the code that's supposed to write to the buffer might also read
    /// from it. It is your responsibility to make sure that `buf` is initialized
    /// before calling `read`. Calling `read` with an uninitialized `buf` (of the kind one
    /// obtains via [`MaybeUninit<T>`]) is not safe, and can lead to undefined behavior.
    ///
    /// [`MaybeUninit<T>`]: crate::mem::MaybeUninit
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// If this function encounters any form of I/O or other error, an error
    /// variant will be returned. If an error is returned then it must be
    /// guaranteed that no bytes were read.
    ///
    /// An error of the [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind is non-fatal and the read
    /// operation should be retried if there is nothing else to do.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// [`File`]s implement `Read`:
    ///
    /// [`Ok(n)`]: Ok
    /// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///     let mut buffer = [0; 10];
    ///
    ///     // read up to 10 bytes
    ///     let n = f.read(&mut buffer[..])?;
    ///
    ///     println!("The bytes: {:?}", &buffer[..n]);
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn read(&mut self, buf: &mut [u8]) -> Result<usize>;

    /// Read all bytes until EOF in this source, placing them into `buf`.
    ///
    /// All bytes read from this source will be appended to the specified buffer
    /// `buf`. This function will continuously call [`read()`] to append more data to
    /// `buf` until [`read()`] returns either [`Ok(0)`] or an error of
    /// non-[`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind.
    ///
    /// If successful, this function will return the total number of bytes read.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// If this function encounters an error of the kind
    /// [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] then the error is ignored and the operation
    /// will continue.
    ///
    /// If any other read error is encountered then this function immediately
    /// returns. Any bytes which have already been read will be appended to
    /// `buf`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// [`File`]s implement `Read`:
    ///
    /// [`read()`]: Read::read
    /// [`Ok(0)`]: Ok
    /// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///     let mut buffer = Vec::new();
    ///
    ///     // read the whole file
    ///     f.read_to_end(&mut buffer)?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    ///
    /// (See also the [`std::fs::read`] convenience function for reading from a
    /// file.)
    ///
    /// [`std::fs::read`]: crate::fs::read
    #[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
    fn read_to_end(&mut self, buf: &mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<usize> {
        read_to_end(self, buf)
    }

    /// Determines if this `Read`er can work with buffers of uninitialized
    /// memory.
    ///
    /// The default implementation returns an initializer which will zero
    /// buffers.
    ///
    /// If a `Read`er guarantees that it can work properly with uninitialized
    /// memory, it should call [`Initializer::nop()`]. See the documentation for
    /// [`Initializer`] for details.
    ///
    /// The behavior of this method must be independent of the state of the
    /// `Read`er - the method only takes `&self` so that it can be used through
    /// trait objects.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This method is unsafe because a `Read`er could otherwise return a
    /// non-zeroing `Initializer` from another `Read` type without an `unsafe`
    /// block.
    #[inline]
    unsafe fn initializer(&self) -> Initializer {
        Initializer::zeroing()
    }

    /// Read the exact number of bytes required to fill `buf`.
    ///
    /// This function reads as many bytes as necessary to completely fill the
    /// specified buffer `buf`.
    ///
    /// No guarantees are provided about the contents of `buf` when this
    /// function is called, implementations cannot rely on any property of the
    /// contents of `buf` being true. It is recommended that implementations
    /// only write data to `buf` instead of reading its contents. The
    /// documentation on [`read`] has a more detailed explanation on this
    /// subject.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// If this function encounters an error of the kind
    /// [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] then the error is ignored and the operation
    /// will continue.
    ///
    /// If this function encounters an "end of file" before completely filling
    /// the buffer, it returns an error of the kind [`ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof`].
    /// The contents of `buf` are unspecified in this case.
    ///
    /// If any other read error is encountered then this function immediately
    /// returns. The contents of `buf` are unspecified in this case.
    ///
    /// If this function returns an error, it is unspecified how many bytes it
    /// has read, but it will never read more than would be necessary to
    /// completely fill the buffer.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// [`File`]s implement `Read`:
    ///
    /// [`read`]: Read::read
    /// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///     let mut buffer = [0; 10];
    ///
    ///     // read exactly 10 bytes
    ///     f.read_exact(&mut buffer)?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn read_exact(&mut self, mut buf: &mut [u8]) -> Result<()> {
        while !buf.is_empty() {
            match self.read(buf) {
                Ok(0) => break,
                Ok(n) => {
                    let tmp = buf;
                    buf = &mut tmp[n..];
                }
                Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => {}
                Err(e) => return Err(e),
            }
        }
        if !buf.is_empty() {
            Err(Error::new(
                ErrorKind::UnexpectedEof,
                "failed to fill whole buffer",
            ))
        } else {
            Ok(())
        }
    }

    /// Creates a "by reference" adaptor for this instance of `Read`.
    ///
    /// The returned adaptor also implements `Read` and will simply borrow this
    /// current reader.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// [`File`]s implement `Read`:
    ///
    /// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::Read;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///     let mut buffer = Vec::new();
    ///     let mut other_buffer = Vec::new();
    ///
    ///     {
    ///         let reference = f.by_ref();
    ///
    ///         // read at most 5 bytes
    ///         reference.take(5).read_to_end(&mut buffer)?;
    ///
    ///     } // drop our &mut reference so we can use f again
    ///
    ///     // original file still usable, read the rest
    ///     f.read_to_end(&mut other_buffer)?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn by_ref(&mut self) -> &mut Self
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        self
    }

    /// Transforms this `Read` instance to an [`Iterator`] over its bytes.
    ///
    /// The returned type implements [`Iterator`] where the `Item` is
    /// [`Result`]`<`[`u8`]`, `[`io::Error`]`>`.
    /// The yielded item is [`Ok`] if a byte was successfully read and [`Err`]
    /// otherwise. EOF is mapped to returning [`None`] from this iterator.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// [`File`]s implement `Read`:
    ///
    /// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
    /// [`Result`]: crate::result::Result
    /// [`io::Error`]: self::Error
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     for byte in f.bytes() {
    ///         println!("{}", byte.unwrap());
    ///     }
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn bytes(self) -> Bytes<Self>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        Bytes { inner: self }
    }

    /// Creates an adaptor which will chain this stream with another.
    ///
    /// The returned `Read` instance will first read all bytes from this object
    /// until EOF is encountered. Afterwards the output is equivalent to the
    /// output of `next`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// [`File`]s implement `Read`:
    ///
    /// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut f1 = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///     let mut f2 = File::open("bar.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     let mut handle = f1.chain(f2);
    ///     let mut buffer = String::new();
    ///
    ///     // read the value into a String. We could use any Read method here,
    ///     // this is just one example.
    ///     handle.read_to_string(&mut buffer)?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn chain<R: Read>(self, next: R) -> Chain<Self, R>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        Chain {
            first: self,
            second: next,
            done_first: false,
        }
    }

    /// Creates an adaptor which will read at most `limit` bytes from it.
    ///
    /// This function returns a new instance of `Read` which will read at most
    /// `limit` bytes, after which it will always return EOF ([`Ok(0)`]). Any
    /// read errors will not count towards the number of bytes read and future
    /// calls to [`read()`] may succeed.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// [`File`]s implement `Read`:
    ///
    /// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
    /// [`Ok(0)`]: Ok
    /// [`read()`]: Read::read
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///     let mut buffer = [0; 5];
    ///
    ///     // read at most five bytes
    ///     let mut handle = f.take(5);
    ///
    ///     handle.read(&mut buffer)?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn take(self, limit: u64) -> Take<Self>
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        Take { inner: self, limit }
    }
}

/// A type used to conditionally initialize buffers passed to `Read` methods.
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Initializer(bool);

impl Initializer {
    /// Returns a new `Initializer` which will zero out buffers.
    #[inline]
    pub fn zeroing() -> Initializer {
        Initializer(true)
    }

    /// Returns a new `Initializer` which will not zero out buffers.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This may only be called by `Read`ers which guarantee that they will not
    /// read from buffers passed to `Read` methods, and that the return value of
    /// the method accurately reflects the number of bytes that have been
    /// written to the head of the buffer.
    #[inline]
    pub unsafe fn nop() -> Initializer {
        Initializer(false)
    }

    /// Indicates if a buffer should be initialized.
    #[inline]
    pub fn should_initialize(&self) -> bool {
        self.0
    }

    /// Initializes a buffer if necessary.
    #[inline]
    pub fn initialize(&self, buf: &mut [u8]) {
        if self.should_initialize() {
            unsafe { core::ptr::write_bytes(buf.as_mut_ptr(), 0, buf.len()) }
        }
    }
}

/// A trait for objects which are byte-oriented sinks.
///
/// Implementors of the `Write` trait are sometimes called 'writers'.
///
/// Writers are defined by two required methods, [`write`] and [`flush`]:
///
/// * The [`write`] method will attempt to write some data into the object,
///   returning how many bytes were successfully written.
///
/// * The [`flush`] method is useful for adaptors and explicit buffers
///   themselves for ensuring that all buffered data has been pushed out to the
///   'true sink'.
///
/// Writers are intended to be composable with one another. Many implementors
/// throughout [`std::io`] take and provide types which implement the `Write`
/// trait.
///
/// [`write`]: Write::write
/// [`flush`]: Write::flush
/// [`std::io`]: self
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```no_run
/// use std::io::prelude::*;
/// use std::fs::File;
///
/// fn main() -> std::io::Result<()> {
///     let data = b"some bytes";
///
///     let mut pos = 0;
///     let mut buffer = File::create("foo.txt")?;
///
///     while pos < data.len() {
///         let bytes_written = buffer.write(&data[pos..])?;
///         pos += bytes_written;
///     }
///     Ok(())
/// }
/// ```
///
/// The trait also provides convenience methods like [`write_all`], which calls
/// `write` in a loop until its entire input has been written.
///
/// [`write_all`]: Write::write_all
pub trait Write {
    /// Write a buffer into this writer, returning how many bytes were written.
    ///
    /// This function will attempt to write the entire contents of `buf`, but
    /// the entire write may not succeed, or the write may also generate an
    /// error. A call to `write` represents *at most one* attempt to write to
    /// any wrapped object.
    ///
    /// Calls to `write` are not guaranteed to block waiting for data to be
    /// written, and a write which would otherwise block can be indicated through
    /// an [`Err`] variant.
    ///
    /// If the return value is [`Ok(n)`] then it must be guaranteed that
    /// `n <= buf.len()`. A return value of `0` typically means that the
    /// underlying object is no longer able to accept bytes and will likely not
    /// be able to in the future as well, or that the buffer provided is empty.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Each call to `write` may generate an I/O error indicating that the
    /// operation could not be completed. If an error is returned then no bytes
    /// in the buffer were written to this writer.
    ///
    /// It is **not** considered an error if the entire buffer could not be
    /// written to this writer.
    ///
    /// An error of the [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind is non-fatal and the
    /// write operation should be retried if there is nothing else to do.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> std::io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut buffer = File::create("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     // Writes some prefix of the byte string, not necessarily all of it.
    ///     buffer.write(b"some bytes")?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [`Ok(n)`]: Ok
    fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<usize>;

    /// Flush this output stream, ensuring that all intermediately buffered
    /// contents reach their destination.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// It is considered an error if not all bytes could be written due to
    /// I/O errors or EOF being reached.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::io::BufWriter;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> std::io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut buffer = BufWriter::new(File::create("foo.txt")?);
    ///
    ///     buffer.write_all(b"some bytes")?;
    ///     buffer.flush()?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()>;

    /// Attempts to write an entire buffer into this writer.
    ///
    /// This method will continuously call [`write`] until there is no more data
    /// to be written or an error of non-[`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind is
    /// returned. This method will not return until the entire buffer has been
    /// successfully written or such an error occurs. The first error that is
    /// not of [`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind generated from this method will be
    /// returned.
    ///
    /// If the buffer contains no data, this will never call [`write`].
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// This function will return the first error of
    /// non-[`ErrorKind::Interrupted`] kind that [`write`] returns.
    ///
    /// [`write`]: Write::write
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> std::io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut buffer = File::create("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     buffer.write_all(b"some bytes")?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn write_all(&mut self, mut buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
        while !buf.is_empty() {
            match self.write(buf) {
                Ok(0) => {
                    return Err(Error::new(
                        ErrorKind::WriteZero,
                        "failed to write whole buffer",
                    ));
                }
                Ok(n) => buf = &buf[n..],
                Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => {}
                Err(e) => return Err(e),
            }
        }
        Ok(())
    }
    /// Writes a formatted string into this writer, returning any error
    /// encountered.
    ///
    /// This method is primarily used to interface with the
    /// [`format_args!()`] macro, but it is rare that this should
    /// explicitly be called. The [`write!()`] macro should be favored to
    /// invoke this method instead.
    ///
    /// This function internally uses the [`write_all`] method on
    /// this trait and hence will continuously write data so long as no errors
    /// are received. This also means that partial writes are not indicated in
    /// this signature.
    ///
    /// [`write_all`]: Write::write_all
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// This function will return any I/O error reported while formatting.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> std::io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut buffer = File::create("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     // this call
    ///     write!(buffer, "{:.*}", 2, 1.234567)?;
    ///     // turns into this:
    ///     buffer.write_fmt(format_args!("{:.*}", 2, 1.234567))?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn write_fmt(&mut self, fmt: fmt::Arguments<'_>) -> Result<()> {
        // Create a shim which translates a Write to a fmt::Write and saves
        // off I/O errors. instead of discarding them
        struct Adaptor<'a, T: ?Sized + 'a> {
            inner: &'a mut T,
            error: Result<()>,
        }

        impl<T: Write + ?Sized> fmt::Write for Adaptor<'_, T> {
            fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> fmt::Result {
                match self.inner.write_all(s.as_bytes()) {
                    Ok(()) => Ok(()),
                    Err(e) => {
                        self.error = Err(e);
                        Err(fmt::Error)
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        let mut output = Adaptor {
            inner: self,
            error: Ok(()),
        };
        match fmt::write(&mut output, fmt) {
            Ok(()) => Ok(()),
            Err(..) => {
                // check if the error came from the underlying `Write` or not
                if output.error.is_err() {
                    output.error
                } else {
                    Err(Error::new(ErrorKind::Other, "formatter error"))
                }
            }
        }
    }

    /// Creates a "by reference" adaptor for this instance of `Write`.
    ///
    /// The returned adaptor also implements `Write` and will simply borrow this
    /// current writer.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io::Write;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> std::io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut buffer = File::create("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     let reference = buffer.by_ref();
    ///
    ///     // we can use reference just like our original buffer
    ///     reference.write_all(b"some bytes")?;
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    fn by_ref(&mut self) -> &mut Self
    where
        Self: Sized,
    {
        self
    }
}

/// The `Seek` trait provides a cursor which can be moved within a stream of
/// bytes.
///
/// The stream typically has a fixed size, allowing seeking relative to either
/// end or the current offset.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// [`File`]s implement `Seek`:
///
/// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
///
/// ```no_run
/// use std::io;
/// use std::io::prelude::*;
/// use std::fs::File;
/// use std::io::SeekFrom;
///
/// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
///     let mut f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
///
///     // move the cursor 42 bytes from the start of the file
///     f.seek(SeekFrom::Start(42))?;
///     Ok(())
/// }
/// ```
pub trait Seek {
    /// Seek to an offset, in bytes, in a stream.
    ///
    /// A seek beyond the end of a stream is allowed, but behavior is defined
    /// by the implementation.
    ///
    /// If the seek operation completed successfully,
    /// this method returns the new position from the start of the stream.
    /// That position can be used later with [`SeekFrom::Start`].
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Seeking to a negative offset is considered an error.
    fn seek(&mut self, pos: SeekFrom) -> Result<u64>;
}

/// Enumeration of possible methods to seek within an I/O object.
///
/// It is used by the [`Seek`] trait.
#[derive(Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Debug)]
pub enum SeekFrom {
    /// Sets the offset to the provided number of bytes.
    Start(u64),

    /// Sets the offset to the size of this object plus the specified number of
    /// bytes.
    ///
    /// It is possible to seek beyond the end of an object, but it's an error to
    /// seek before byte 0.
    End(i64),

    /// Sets the offset to the current position plus the specified number of
    /// bytes.
    ///
    /// It is possible to seek beyond the end of an object, but it's an error to
    /// seek before byte 0.
    Current(i64),
}

/// An iterator over `u8` values of a reader.
///
/// This struct is generally created by calling [`bytes`] on a reader.
/// Please see the documentation of [`bytes`] for more details.
///
/// [`bytes`]: Read::bytes
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Bytes<R> {
    inner: R,
}

impl<R: Read> Iterator for Bytes<R> {
    type Item = Result<u8>;

    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Result<u8>> {
        let mut byte = 0;
        loop {
            return match self.inner.read(slice::from_mut(&mut byte)) {
                Ok(0) => None,
                Ok(..) => Some(Ok(byte)),
                Err(ref e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::Interrupted => continue,
                Err(e) => Some(Err(e)),
            };
        }
    }
}

/// A `BufRead` is a type of `Read`er which has an internal buffer, allowing it
/// to perform extra ways of reading.
///
/// For example, reading line-by-line is inefficient without using a buffer, so
/// if you want to read by line, you'll need `BufRead`, which includes a
/// [`read_line`] method as well as a [`lines`] iterator.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// A locked standard input implements `BufRead`:
///
/// ```no_run
/// use std::io;
/// use std::io::prelude::*;
///
/// let stdin = io::stdin();
/// for line in stdin.lock().lines() {
///     println!("{}", line.unwrap());
/// }
/// ```
///
/// If you have something that implements [`Read`], you can use the [`BufReader`
/// type][`BufReader`] to turn it into a `BufRead`.
///
/// For example, [`File`] implements [`Read`], but not `BufRead`.
/// [`BufReader`] to the rescue!
///
/// [`File`]: crate::fs::File
/// [`read_line`]: BufRead::read_line
/// [`lines`]: BufRead::lines
///
/// ```no_run
/// use std::io::{self, BufReader};
/// use std::io::prelude::*;
/// use std::fs::File;
///
/// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
///     let f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
///     let f = BufReader::new(f);
///
///     for line in f.lines() {
///         println!("{}", line.unwrap());
///     }
///
///     Ok(())
/// }
/// ```
pub trait BufRead: Read {
    /// Returns the contents of the internal buffer, filling it with more data
    /// from the inner reader if it is empty.
    ///
    /// This function is a lower-level call. It needs to be paired with the
    /// [`consume`] method to function properly. When calling this
    /// method, none of the contents will be "read" in the sense that later
    /// calling `read` may return the same contents. As such, [`consume`] must
    /// be called with the number of bytes that are consumed from this buffer to
    /// ensure that the bytes are never returned twice.
    ///
    /// [`consume`]: BufRead::consume
    ///
    /// An empty buffer returned indicates that the stream has reached EOF.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// This function will return an I/O error if the underlying reader was
    /// read, but returned an error.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// A locked standard input implements `BufRead`:
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    ///
    /// let stdin = io::stdin();
    /// let mut stdin = stdin.lock();
    ///
    /// let buffer = stdin.fill_buf().unwrap();
    ///
    /// // work with buffer
    /// println!("{:?}", buffer);
    ///
    /// // ensure the bytes we worked with aren't returned again later
    /// let length = buffer.len();
    /// stdin.consume(length);
    /// ```
    fn fill_buf(&mut self) -> Result<&[u8]>;

    /// Tells this buffer that `amt` bytes have been consumed from the buffer,
    /// so they should no longer be returned in calls to `read`.
    ///
    /// This function is a lower-level call. It needs to be paired with the
    /// [`fill_buf`] method to function properly. This function does
    /// not perform any I/O, it simply informs this object that some amount of
    /// its buffer, returned from [`fill_buf`], has been consumed and should
    /// no longer be returned. As such, this function may do odd things if
    /// [`fill_buf`] isn't called before calling it.
    ///
    /// The `amt` must be `<=` the number of bytes in the buffer returned by
    /// [`fill_buf`].
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// Since `consume()` is meant to be used with [`fill_buf`],
    /// that method's example includes an example of `consume()`.
    ///
    /// [`fill_buf`]: BufRead::fill_buf
    fn consume(&mut self, amt: usize);
}

/// Adaptor to chain together two readers.
///
/// This struct is generally created by calling [`chain`] on a reader.
/// Please see the documentation of [`chain`] for more details.
///
/// [`chain`]: Read::chain
pub struct Chain<T, U> {
    first: T,
    second: U,
    done_first: bool,
}

impl<T, U> Chain<T, U> {
    /// Consumes the `Chain`, returning the wrapped readers.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut foo_file = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///     let mut bar_file = File::open("bar.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     let chain = foo_file.chain(bar_file);
    ///     let (foo_file, bar_file) = chain.into_inner();
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    pub fn into_inner(self) -> (T, U) {
        (self.first, self.second)
    }

    /// Gets references to the underlying readers in this `Chain`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut foo_file = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///     let mut bar_file = File::open("bar.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     let chain = foo_file.chain(bar_file);
    ///     let (foo_file, bar_file) = chain.get_ref();
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    pub fn get_ref(&self) -> (&T, &U) {
        (&self.first, &self.second)
    }

    /// Gets mutable references to the underlying readers in this `Chain`.
    ///
    /// Care should be taken to avoid modifying the internal I/O state of the
    /// underlying readers as doing so may corrupt the internal state of this
    /// `Chain`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut foo_file = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///     let mut bar_file = File::open("bar.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     let mut chain = foo_file.chain(bar_file);
    ///     let (foo_file, bar_file) = chain.get_mut();
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    pub fn get_mut(&mut self) -> (&mut T, &mut U) {
        (&mut self.first, &mut self.second)
    }
}

impl<T: fmt::Debug, U: fmt::Debug> fmt::Debug for Chain<T, U> {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
        f.debug_struct("Chain")
            .field("t", &self.first)
            .field("u", &self.second)
            .finish()
    }
}

impl<T: Read, U: Read> Read for Chain<T, U> {
    fn read(&mut self, buf: &mut [u8]) -> Result<usize> {
        if !self.done_first {
            match self.first.read(buf)? {
                0 if !buf.is_empty() => self.done_first = true,
                n => return Ok(n),
            }
        }
        self.second.read(buf)
    }

    unsafe fn initializer(&self) -> Initializer {
        let initializer = self.first.initializer();
        if initializer.should_initialize() {
            initializer
        } else {
            self.second.initializer()
        }
    }
}

impl<T: BufRead, U: BufRead> BufRead for Chain<T, U> {
    fn fill_buf(&mut self) -> Result<&[u8]> {
        if !self.done_first {
            match self.first.fill_buf()? {
                buf if buf.is_empty() => {
                    self.done_first = true;
                }
                buf => return Ok(buf),
            }
        }
        self.second.fill_buf()
    }

    fn consume(&mut self, amt: usize) {
        if !self.done_first {
            self.first.consume(amt)
        } else {
            self.second.consume(amt)
        }
    }
}

/// Reader adaptor which limits the bytes read from an underlying reader.
///
/// This struct is generally created by calling [`take`] on a reader.
/// Please see the documentation of [`take`] for more details.
///
/// [`take`]: Read::take
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct Take<T> {
    inner: T,
    limit: u64,
}

impl<T> Take<T> {
    /// Returns the number of bytes that can be read before this instance will
    /// return EOF.
    ///
    /// # Note
    ///
    /// This instance may reach `EOF` after reading fewer bytes than indicated by
    /// this method if the underlying [`Read`] instance reaches EOF.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     // read at most five bytes
    ///     let handle = f.take(5);
    ///
    ///     println!("limit: {}", handle.limit());
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    pub fn limit(&self) -> u64 {
        self.limit
    }

    /// Sets the number of bytes that can be read before this instance will
    /// return EOF. This is the same as constructing a new `Take` instance, so
    /// the amount of bytes read and the previous limit value don't matter when
    /// calling this method.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let f = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     // read at most five bytes
    ///     let mut handle = f.take(5);
    ///     handle.set_limit(10);
    ///
    ///     assert_eq!(handle.limit(), 10);
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    pub fn set_limit(&mut self, limit: u64) {
        self.limit = limit;
    }

    /// Consumes the `Take`, returning the wrapped reader.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut file = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     let mut buffer = [0; 5];
    ///     let mut handle = file.take(5);
    ///     handle.read(&mut buffer)?;
    ///
    ///     let file = handle.into_inner();
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    pub fn into_inner(self) -> T {
        self.inner
    }

    /// Gets a reference to the underlying reader.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut file = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     let mut buffer = [0; 5];
    ///     let mut handle = file.take(5);
    ///     handle.read(&mut buffer)?;
    ///
    ///     let file = handle.get_ref();
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    pub fn get_ref(&self) -> &T {
        &self.inner
    }

    /// Gets a mutable reference to the underlying reader.
    ///
    /// Care should be taken to avoid modifying the internal I/O state of the
    /// underlying reader as doing so may corrupt the internal limit of this
    /// `Take`.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```no_run
    /// use std::io;
    /// use std::io::prelude::*;
    /// use std::fs::File;
    ///
    /// fn main() -> io::Result<()> {
    ///     let mut file = File::open("foo.txt")?;
    ///
    ///     let mut buffer = [0; 5];
    ///     let mut handle = file.take(5);
    ///     handle.read(&mut buffer)?;
    ///
    ///     let file = handle.get_mut();
    ///     Ok(())
    /// }
    /// ```
    pub fn get_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T {
        &mut self.inner
    }
}

impl<T: Read> Read for Take<T> {
    fn read(&mut self, buf: &mut [u8]) -> Result<usize> {
        // Don't call into inner reader at all at EOF because it may still block
        if self.limit == 0 {
            return Ok(0);
        }

        let max = cmp::min(buf.len() as u64, self.limit) as usize;
        let n = self.inner.read(&mut buf[..max])?;
        self.limit -= n as u64;
        Ok(n)
    }

    unsafe fn initializer(&self) -> Initializer {
        self.inner.initializer()
    }

    #[cfg(feature = "alloc")]
    fn read_to_end(&mut self, buf: &mut Vec<u8>) -> Result<usize> {
        // Pass in a reservation_size closure that respects the current value
        // of limit for each read. If we hit the read limit, this prevents the
        // final zero-byte read from allocating again.
        read_to_end_with_reservation(self, buf, |self_| cmp::min(self_.limit, 32) as usize)
    }
}

impl<T: BufRead> BufRead for Take<T> {
    fn fill_buf(&mut self) -> Result<&[u8]> {
        // Don't call into inner reader at all at EOF because it may still block
        if self.limit == 0 {
            return Ok(&[]);
        }

        let buf = self.inner.fill_buf()?;
        let cap = cmp::min(buf.len() as u64, self.limit) as usize;
        Ok(&buf[..cap])
    }

    fn consume(&mut self, amt: usize) {
        // Don't let callers reset the limit by passing an overlarge value
        let amt = cmp::min(amt as u64, self.limit) as usize;
        self.limit -= amt as u64;
        self.inner.consume(amt);
    }
}